Translate in another language

From rhino horn snuff to pangolin livestock feed: we analysed half a century of patents to track the wildlife trade’s evolution

From rhino horn snuff to pangolin livestock feed: we analysed half a century of patents to track the wildlife trade’s evolution
Photo by Studio Crevettes on Unsplash
💡
This article by Amy Hinsley and Susanne Masters is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license

The bright blue blood of the horseshoe crab is used around the world to detect bacterial contamination in vaccines. Synonymous with luxury, sturgeon caviar has been patented as an antidote to impotency in China. Rhino horn is used in traditional Asian medicine to treat various ailments, and is also an ingredient in 50 different recipes for snuff.

Similarly, pangolin scales have been suggested as an ingredient in livestock feed, according to a 2014 patent. Wildlife products, even those that have been traded and used for centuries, are the subject of constant innovation, and that could be putting rare and endangered animals under increasing pressure.

Market shifts are usually detected after trade – either legal or illegal – has become established. Since 2014, jaguar parts began replacing the more rare and difficult to obtain tiger parts in Chinese markets. As businesses make technological advances, they apply for patents to protect their commercial interest.

These patent applications document changes in species, products and locations of wildlife trade. So patents can provide a window into innovations related to wild products.

In our new research, published in the journal Nature Communications, we analysed the patents for products sourced from various species. We selected bears, Ophiocordyceps caterpillar fungus, rhinos, pangolins, sturgeon and horseshoe crabs, to cover a range of use types, taxonomic groups and trade legalities. Using machine learning, we analysed half a century of wildlife-related patenting, looking at patents from 1970-2020.

We used a method called “changepoint analysis” to look for the key point at which patent filing rate changed, and also “topic modelling”, which grouped together patents with similar topics (such as medicine, food or farming) based on a set of keywords. We could then pinpoint key moments when patent filing rates shifted and explore when or how commercial interest changed.

We found 27,308 patent applications for the species we focused on in this study. Patent filing rates for them increased at 130% per year since 1988, more than the average of 104% for all patent filing. On a global scale businesses consider wild species an important component of future commercial trade.

While we expected that legislative bans would reduce patenting rates for products using wild species, and potentially increase patent filing for alternatives, this was not the case. Changes in patent filing trends did not always coincide with regulations such as trade bans.

Patents filed for illegal products also increased. For example, 426 patents for medicines containing rhino horn were filed in China after it was banned as a medicinal ingredient there. This included a proposed treatment for blood disease in 2016 and an anti-cancer food supplement in 2013.

This may suggest that, in most cases, businesses have some confidence that these markets will reopen in the future. It could also indicate that the people filing patents are unaware of these regulations.

One exception was a decrease patent applications for products containing pangolins and an increase in patenet applications for patents related to farming patents, for example formula for feeding young pangolins, in 2017. This was the year when pangolins were legally protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species in the equivalent of an international commercial trade ban.

Innovative applications

Patents diversified over time. This included the emergence of applications for horseshoe crab blood in the electronics industry in the 1980s, and a new “environmentally-friendly” pesticide containing rhino horn, which was patented in 2013.

Sometimes existing products are promoted for a new purpose. Cordyceps, a caterpillar controlled by an infecting fungus collected in the high altitude Himalayas, was a popular traditional medicine and food supplement.

Demand for these products soared after they were named as a performance enhancer for athletes at the Beijing Olympics. The medicinal use of pangolin scales was the basis for a 2019 patent for healthcare trousers, which have a pouch containing pangolin scales and other medicinal ingredients.

Innovations aimed at expanding markets and increasing profits for businesses can lead to more wild harvest and trade of animals, plants and fungi to meet demand. However, innovation can also focus on reducing wild trade through improved farming as an alternative to wild collecting.

For example, there are patents for sturgeon breeding enclosures. Patents also include processes to produce synthetic versions of active ingredients, such as a bear bile substitute made from poultry bile in a lab.

Wildlife trade is subject to the same pressures and processes as other commercial sectors. Understanding how and why businesses innovate is key to understanding the future of wildlife markets. Even illegal trade is not based solely in hidden markets. Patents reveal a side of wildlife trade that has not been recognised or incorporated into decision making.

Conducting regular scans of patent applications could provide researchers with early warnings of emerging commercial interests that may lead to unsustainable or illegal harvesting. Policymakers and conservationists should use patent data to inform development of regulations and laws to identify businesses with a commercial interest in wildlife and better understand why and how they plan to use wild species.

Companies working to reduce the impact of their global supply chains on biodiversity may need to consider the potentially hidden uses of wild species in fertilisers and pesticides. They must also examine ingredients such as squalene, an oil extracted from shark livers for use in sunscreen, cosmetics and personal care products.

Unexpected use of wild species in widely available products increases the burden on consumers mindful of their impact on natural resources. Labelling requirements conceal wildlife used upstream of product manufacture.

For example, wild-collected wrasse are sometimes used to control lice in farmed salmon pens but this isn’t mentioned on any product labels. The more information that is available on hidden wild harvests, the greater the opportunity there is to reduce pressure on wild species.

💡
is a Senior Research Fellow, Oxford Martin Programme on the Illegal Wildlife Trade, University of Oxford and
is a PhD Candidate, Institute of Biology, Leiden University

IP Round up

audio-thumbnail
IP Wave Round up 15 01 produced using Adobe AI Generator by ASIA
0:00
/285.624
Image Source: Wikimedia
Dr Reddy's Post-Patent Challenge
Dr Reddy’s Laboratories (DRL) faces a significant earnings challenge with Revlimid, its key product, going off-patent in January 2026. The company is relying on crucial product launches, including Semaglutide in Canada (market size: $2 billion) and Abatacept in the US (market size: $2.8 billion), to offset losses. While these launches could recover 80% of Revlimid's earnings erosion by FY27, approval uncertainties persist. Analysts remain cautious due to rising competition, regulatory hurdles, and exchange rate risks. DRL’s initiatives, including R&D investments, acquisitions, and a growing B2B segment, have shown promise but need strong execution to meet long-term growth targets. (Source: Mint)
Image Source: Unsplash
Birkenstock Battles Copycats Over Iconic Designs
Birkenstock, the renowned German footwear brand, has filed three lawsuits accusing brands like Tchibo of copying its iconic designs. The legal dispute, now before Germany's federal court of justice, centers on whether Birkenstock’s sandals qualify as “works of applied art,” granting them copyright protection. Birkenstock argues its designs, including the Arizona model worn by Steve Jobs and featured in the Barbie movie, meet the criteria for artistic merit under copyright law. Conflicting lower court rulings have intensified the case, leaving the fate of the Arizona, Gizeh, Madrid, and Boston Clog models in limbo until a final decision is made. (Source: NewsBytes)
Wikimedia image
Animator Sues Disney for $10B Over Moana
Animator Buck Woodall has filed a lawsuit against Disney, accusing the company of using ideas from his screenplay, Bucky, for the film Moana and its sequel. Filed in a California federal court, the lawsuit seeks $10 billion, equating to 2.5% of Moana's gross revenue. Woodall claims his story, involving Polynesian teenagers on a mission to save their village, was submitted to Jenny Marchick, then with Mandeville Films. He highlights specific elements, such as an oceanic portal, allegedly taken from his work. Disney has denied prior exposure to Woodall’s materials, maintaining that Moana is an original creation. The studio has yet to comment. (Source: IndiaToday)
Image Source: Unsplash/Mark Kuiper

China New Guidelines for AI Patents
On December 31, 2024, China’s National Intellectual Property Administration (CNIPA) released the Guidelines for Patent Applications for AI-Related Inventions (Trial Implementation). The guidelines outline four types of AI-related patent applications: those concerning AI algorithms/models, their functional or field applications, inventions assisted by AI, and AI-generated inventions. They emphasize that inventors must be natural persons, excluding AI from being named as an inventor. AI can assist in creating inventions, but the creative contribution must come from humans. The guidelines also address subject matter eligibility, requiring AI-related patents to involve technical solutions that adhere to natural laws. Examples include AI algorithms processing technical data, improving hardware efficiency, and mining big data correlations to solve technical problems. However, solutions relying on economic or social laws rather than natural laws do not qualify as technical solutions under patent law. (Source: NatLawReview)

Image Source: Unsplash/ Anne Nygård

India's First SiC Semiconductor Facility
Indichip Semiconductors Ltd, in partnership with Japan’s Yitoa Micro Technology (YMTL), has signed an agreement with the Andhra Pradesh government to establish India’s first private semiconductor manufacturing facility. With a Rs 14,000 crore investment, the facility will focus on producing Silicon Carbide (SiC) chips, advancing India's technological and sustainability goals. Located at the Orvakal mega industrial hub in Kurnool, the facility will start with a capacity of 10,000 wafers per month, scaling up to 50,000 within two to three years. (Source: Business Standards)

💡
IP Round up by Shivani Singh and Technical Assistance for Audio Generation by Raghav

References

Aggarwal, A. (2025, January 10). Dr Reddy’s: Revlimid, Semaglutide, Abatacept drug patents, revenue, earnings, stock movement. Mint. https://www.livemint.com/market/mark-to-market/dr-reddy-s-revlimid-semaglutide-abatacept-drug-patents-revenue-earnings-stock-movement-11736486421610.html

Hinsley, A., & Masters, S. (2024, August 27). From rhino horn snuff to pangolin livestock feed: We analyzed half a century of patents to track the wildlife trade's evolution. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/from-rhino-horn-snuff-to-pangolin-livestock-feed-we-analysed-half-a-century-of-patents-to-track-the-wildlife-trades-evolution-235990

India Today Entertainment Desk. (2025, January 13). Copyright lawsuit against Disney: $10 billion dollars for Moana?. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/hollywood/story/copyright-lawsuit-against-disney-10-billion-dollars-for-moana-buck-woodall-2663957-2025-01-13

Pandey, A. (2025, January 10). German footwear brand Birkenstock files copyright infringement lawsuits against imitators. NewsBytes. https://www.newsbytesapp.com/news/business/german-footwear-brand-birkenstock-files-copyright-infringement-lawsuits-against-imitators/story

Press Trust of India. (2025, January 11). Indichip Semiconductors inks deal with Andhra for Rs 14,000 cr facility. Business Standard. https://www.business-standard.com/companies/news/indichip-semiconductors-inks-deal-with-andhra-for-rs-14-000-cr-facility-125011100828_1.html

Wininger, A. (2025, January 13). China’s National Intellectual Property Administration issues guidelines for patent applications on AI inventions. The National Law Review. https://natlawreview.com/article/chinas-national-intellectual-property-administration-issues-guidelines-patent


Great! You’ve successfully signed up.

Welcome back! You've successfully signed in.

You've successfully subscribed to IP Wave.

Success! Check your email for magic link to sign-in.

Success! Your billing info has been updated.

Your billing was not updated.